Since anyone can write and publish anything, we have articles that focus on legitimate research and reporting and we have articles filled with lies, "fake news", and propaganda. Authors of scholarly and research-oriented articles (Scholarship) seek to identify the truth as they understand it. All authors (and publications) have a Bias, some write to that bias and others try to be more balanced in their writing. When the author focuses on persuasion using bias, emotional appeals and distortion of facts, the article enters the category of Propaganda. The University of Michigan Library offers an excellent chart on:
Use the links below to discover where your favorite news source falls on the political spectrum and the bias it may have.
Bias is a leaning or prejudice in favor of or against one side, person, item, or group compared with another, often in an unfair manner.
| Scholarly/Academic Articles | Popular Articles | Trade Articles | |
| Publisher | Academic institutions, Scholarly platforms (e.g., Elsevier) | Magazines, newspapers, websites, blogs, and government agencies | Trade associations, Vendors |
| Author (who writes) | Professors, researchers, experts considered scholars; credentials are generally noted and authors are generally not paid | General: Anyone: lay reporter, staff writer, free-lancer; generally paid Research-oriented: Expert on the topic, someone who works in or knows the field; may or may not be paid |
Staff writers, professionals, journalists or vendors in the field; generally paid |
| Audience (who reads) | Scholars, researchers and students in the field | General public | Professionals and practitioners in a specific trade, industry, or profession |
| Goal/ Purpose | To share or present original research or scholarship; answer the "so what?" questions, make connections between variables/issues. | To entertain, persuade or inform; answers "who, what, where, and when" questions Research-oriented: To find the truth, factual reporting Propaganda-focused: To elicit an emotional response |
To inform and share research or experiences within a specific business or industry |
| Content | Research results, reviews of research in a specific field, book reviews | Current events, general interest, reporting the findings of others | Current news, trends, and products about a specific business or industry |
| Editors/ Reviewers | Journal editors and peer reviewers | Staff editors, no peer review | Staff editors, may be reviewed by business or industry professionals |
| Format/ Structure | Standardized; see: Anatomy of a Scholarly Article; may be described as refereed or peer-reviewed | Variable, includes websites, blogs, reports, and infographics | No specific format with some industry exceptions |
| Citation/ References | Includes sources with footnotes, end notes, and/or in-text citations, and bibliography or list of references | Rare; may offer links within publication or to similarly-focused sources Research-oriented: Generally includes references, footnotes and/or links to sources |
Rare, may offer short reference lists |
| Vocabulary | Complex and technical | Familiar, non-technical | Technical in the field |
| Article Titles | May include the words: Journal, Review, or Annals; and/or refer to a field of study | Often general, usually catchy | Usually catchy and include technical terminology |
| Graphics | Used to illustrate a point | Used for visual impact | Used to illustrate a point or for visual impact |
| Ads in publication | Minimal, usually for scholarly products (e.g., books) or field-related products | Glossy photos; Ads for a variety of different products | Ads geared for the specific industry |
| Examples | American Anthropologist, Annals of Psychology, Journal of Gerontology | Popular: Newsweek, Better Homes and Gardens, Time, Rolling Stone, My Blog Research-oriented: Washington Post, Mother Jones, National Academies Press Propaganda-focused: Liberal America, National Rifle Association (NRA) |
Banker, Pharmacy Times, Professional Nurse, Interior Designer, InfoSecurity Professional |
Indicators of Scholarship vs. Indicators of Propaganda
While scholarship and objective news reporting is created with a focus on the ideal of truth, propaganda actively seeks to influence through the use of deception. Presenting a point of view is different from deliberately using psychological techniques to shape the opinion of others.
| Indicators of Scholarship | Indicators of Propaganda |
| Describes limits of data; Admits own ignorance and uncertainty; Strives for truth/facts | Excessive claims of certainty (We have "the way, the view"); Mixes both truth and falsehood |
| Presents accurate descriptions of alternative views | Personal attacks and ridicule on alternative views; Identifies one point of view as the only view |
| Presents data that do not favor preferred views as well as data that supports those views | Distorts or manipulates data to support preferred views |
| Encourages debate, discussion, criticism, Relies on critical thinking skills | Relies on emotional appeals and suggestion (e.g., negative innuendo); |
| Settles disputes by use of generally accepted criteria for evaluating data | Devalues thought and critical appraisal; suppresses contradictory views |
| Looks for counter-examples | Suppresses contradictory facts, Magnifies or minimizes problems and suggested remedies; Offers ready-made answers |
| Uses language in agreed-on ways | Transforms words to suit aims |
| Updates information | Presents information and views out of context |
| Attempts to discuss general laws and principles | Appeals to popular prejudices; deliberately misleads |
| Invites continuing research | Success measured by changed attitudes/motivations |
From Prof. Eileen Gambrill in Bodi, S. (1995). Scholarship or propaganda: How can librarians help undergraduates tell the difference? Journal of Academic Librarianship. 21(1):21–25. With thanks to the UMich Library.