Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

The results section is where you report the findings of your study based on the methodology [or methodologies] you applied to gather information required to examine the research problem. The results section arrange and describe the findings in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation. A section describing results should be particularly detailed if your paper includes data or information generated from your own research rather than gathered from secondary sources.

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070; Ballenger, Bruce P. The Curious Researcher: A Guide to Writing Research Papers. 9th edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2018.

The results section of your paper is where you begin the process of inserting yourself into the research study. In other words, it is where you begin to separate yourself from what others have said about the research problem. The results section also presents information needed to report the implications of your findings in the discussion section that follows. As such, the results section must be focused on describing, both systematically and concisely, what you have discovered.

Consider the Following

When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything. Findings can only support or challenge the theoretical assumptions or hypothesis underpinning your study. However, the act of describing the results helps you to understand the research problem from various perspectives by subdividing the overall findings into conceptual categories [logically grouped methodological outcomes]. This sets the stage for carrying out the acts of self-reflection, critical analysis, and interpretation required for writing an effective discussion section.

The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of information to be reported. Be concise. In most cases, aside from the conclusion, the results section is the shortest part of your paper. If needed, use figures, tables, charts, or other non-textual elements to present findings more effectively. When deciding what data to include, clearly distinguish information that the reader needs to understand each finding from any raw data or other supporting content [e.g., a survey tool]. Consider placing this information in an appendix. In general, supporting information or research tools should not be included in the results section unless requested to do so by your professor.

Avoid describing findings that are not critical to answering the research question. It is not uncommon for research to produce findings that are surprising, but that are not central to addressing the problem. For example, a study of teachers using AI technology in the classroom may reveal that some still rely on old equipment such as typewriters. This may be interesting, but if the use of legacy technology is not part of the research problem you are investigating, this information should only be mentioned as a tangential and unexpected result. If the finding was especially interesting or surprising, it could be highlighted as an issue for further research, but that it falls outside of the scope of the current study.

Ensure there is enough background information and context. The results section should not include extensive background or contextual information. Any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results should be described in the introduction section. A good strategy is to always re-read the introduction part of your paper after you have written your results to ensure that the reader has enough context and background information to understand what you have discovered.

Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Brett, Paul. "A Genre Analysis of the Results Section of Sociology Articles." English for Specific Speakers 13 (1994): 47-59; Go to English for Specific Purposes on ScienceDirect;Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit; "Reporting Findings." In Making Sense of Social Research Malcolm Williams, editor. (London;: SAGE Publications, 2003) pp. 188-207.

I.  Organization and Approach

For most research papers in the social and behavioral sciences, there are two ways of organizing the results. Both approaches are appropriate for reporting your findings, but use only one approach.

1. Present a synopsis of the results followed by an explanation of key findings. This approach can be used to highlight important findings. For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables during the analysis of your findings. It is appropriate to highlight this finding in the results section. However, speculating as to why this correlation exists and offering a hypothesis about what may be happening belongs in the discussion section of your paper.
2. Present a result and then explain it, before presenting the next result then explaining it, and so on, then end with an overall synopsis. This is the preferred approach if you have multiple results of equal significance. It is more common in longer papers because it helps the reader to better understand each finding. In this model, it is helpful to write a brief conclusion that ties each of the findings together, thus providing a narrative bridge to the discussion section of the your paper.

NOTE:  Just as the literature review should be arranged under conceptual categories rather than systematically describing each source, you should also organize your findings under key themes related to addressing the research problem. This can be done under either format noted above [i.e., a thorough explanation of the key results or a sequential, thematic description and explanation of each finding].

II.  Content

In general, the content of your results section should include the following:

• Introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem underpinning your study. This is useful in re-orientating the reader's focus back to the research problem after having read a review of the literature and your explanation of the methods used for gathering and analyzing information.
• If appropriate, inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate key findings. Rather than relying entirely on descriptive text, consider how your findings can be presented visually. This is a helpful way of condensing a lot of data into one place that can then be referred to in the text. Consider using appendices if there is a lot of non-textual elements.
• A systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation. Not all results that emerge from the method(s) used to gather information may be related to answering the "So What?" question. Do not confuse observations with interpretations; observations in this context refers to highlighting important findings you discovered through a process of reviewing prior literature and gathering data.
• Results section is guided by the amount and types of data and information to be reported. However, focus on findings that are critical to addressing the research problem. As noted, it is not uncommon to have unanticipated results that are not relevant to answering the research questions. This is not to say that you don't acknowledge tangential findings and, in fact, can be referred to as areas for further research in the conclusion of your paper. However, spending time in the results section describing tangential findings clutters your overall results section and distracts the reader.
• A short paragraph that concludes the results section by synthesizing the key findings of the study. Not all findings are created equal. Highlight the most important findings you want readers to remember as they transition to reading the discussion section. This is particularly important if, for example, there are many results to report, the findings are complicated or unanticipated, or they are impactful or actionable in some way [i.e., able to be pursued in a feasible way applied to practice].

NOTE:  Always use the past tense when referring to your study's findings. Reference to findings should always be described as having already happened because the method used to gather the information has been completed.

III.  Problems to Avoid

When writing the results section, avoid doing the following:

1. Discussing or interpreting your results. Save this for the discussion section of your paper, although where appropriate, you should compare or contrast specific results to those found in any prior studies noted in your review of the literature [e.g., "Similar to the work of Smith [1990], one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."].
2. Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings. This should have been done in your introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need for additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you missed something important. Writing up research is rarely a linear process. Always revise your introduction as needed.
3. Ignoring negative results. A negative result generally refers to a finding that does not support the underlying assumptions of your study. Do not ignore them. Document these findings and then state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them, can give you an opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section. Therefore, don't hesitate to highlight them.
4. Including raw data or intermediate calculations. Ask your professor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or a long table of statistics. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or appendices that are referred to in the text.
5. Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings. Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater than other factors..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...." Subjective modifiers should be explained in the discussion section of the paper [i.e., why did one variable appear greater? What ways does the finding demonstrate a promising trend?].
6. Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once. If you want to highlight a particular finding, it is appropriate to do so in the results section. However, you should emphasize its significance in relation to addressing the research problem in the discussion section. Do not repeat it in your results section because you can re-emphasize an important finding in the conclusion of your paper.
7. Confusing figures with tables. Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. Don't call a chart an illustration or a figure a table. If you are not sure, go here.

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070; Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008;  Caprette, David R. Writing Research Papers. Experimental Biosciences Resources. Rice University; Hancock, Dawson R. and Bob Algozzine. Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning Researchers. 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press, 2011; Introduction to Nursing Research: Reporting Research Findings. Nursing Research: Open Access Nursing Research and Review Articles. (January 4, 2012); Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit; Ng, K. H. and W. C. Peh. "Writing the Results." Singapore Medical Journal 49 (2008): 967-968; Reporting Research Findings. Wilder Research, in partnership with the Minnesota Department of Human Services. (February 2009); Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Results. Thesis Writing in the Sciences. Course Syllabus. University of Florida.

Why Don't I Just Combine the Results Section with the Discussion Section?

It's not unusual to find articles in scholarly journals where the author(s) have combined a description of the findings with a discussion about their significance and implications. You could do this. However, if you are inexperienced writing college-level research papers, consider creating two distinct sections for each section as a way to better organize your thoughts and, by extension, your paper. Think of the results section as the place where you report what your study found; think of the discussion section as the place where you interpret the information and answer the "So What?" question. As you become more skilled writing research papers, you can consider melding the results of your study with a discussion of its implications.

Driscoll, Dana Lynn and Aleksandra Kasztalska. Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.